he Civil War placed the future of the United States in jeopardy. In 1861 and 1862, the Union and Confederate armies were stalemated, and European powers threatened to recognize the Confederacy. President Lincoln's decision to issue the Emancipation Proclamation and to enlist African American troops dramatically altered the character of the conflict. "Men of Color: To Arms! To Arms!" Broadside, ca. 1863. GLC 2752 The Emancipation Proclamation authorized the enrollment of black troops. Altogether, 186,000 black soldiers served in the Union army and another 29,000 served in the navy, accounting for nearly ten percent of all Union forces and 68,178 of the Union dead or missing. Twenty-four African Americans received the Congressional Medal of Honor for extraordinary bravery in battle. "The Gallant Charge of the Fifty Fourth Massachusetts (Colored) Regiment," Lithograph, 1863. GLC 2881.23 Organized in March 1863, and led by Robert Gould Shaw, a twenty-six-year-old Boston abolitionist, the 54th Massachusetts Volunteer Infantry was one of the first black units formed in the northern states. The unit gained lasting fame when it staged a heroic but doomed assault on Confederate positions at Fort Wagner, near Charleston, South Carolina, on July 18, 1863, depicted in this print by Currier and Ives. William Birney to John A.J. Creswell, December 27, 1863. GLC 3428.02 As superintendent of black enlistment, William Birney commanded thousands of black troops during the war. In this letter to a U.S. Senator from Maryland, Col. Birney recommends more equal treatment of black soldiers. In 1864, Congress would authorize retrospective payment to blacks who were free before the war (other black troops were paid only from January 1, 1864) and, in 1865, the War Department would allow blacks to serve as line officers.