by Clarence Taylor
Professor of History, Baruch College
Although African Americans have been the victims of racial oppression throughout the history of the United States, they have always supported the nation, especially during wartime. When World War II erupted, over 2.5 million black men registered for the draft and one million served as draftees or volunteers in all of the branches of the armed forces during conflict. Most black men who served were in the Army and were relegated to segregated combat support groups. Over 12,000 black men who served in the segregated 92nd Division received citations and were decorated for their effort, and the all black 761st Tank Battalion received the Presidential Unit Citation for “extraordinary heroism.”
By 1944, 145,000 black men served in the US Army Air Force, including the 99th Fighter Squadron, popularly known as the Tuskegee Airmen. The Tuskegee Airmen became legendary for their heroic feats during the war and received a Distinguished Unit Citation, several silver stars, 150 distinguished flying crosses, fourteen bronze stars, and 744 air medals. Although the Navy put up great resistance and had only allowed blacks to serve as mess attendants, pressure from President Franklin Delano Roosevelt and civil rights organizations forced the Navy to start recruiting blacks in April 1942 for service. However, its policy of relegating blacks to segregated units led black to leaders to accuse the Navy of practicing Jim Crow. Despite its goal of recruiting 14,000 volunteers in the first year, blacks never made up more than five percent of the entire Navy.
Black women also came to the defense of the nation by enlisting in the Women’s Auxiliary Army Corps (WAAC). Black women in WAAC were labeled “ten percenters” because they made up ten percent of the woman recruited. Like black men in the armed forces, they were placed in segregated units, lived in segregated housing, ate at segregated tables in the mess hall, and received segregated training. Although black WAAC officers received officer cadet training in integrated units, all other aspects of life in the Corps were segregated. Over 6,200 black women served in WAAC. In spite of serving in segregated units and facing harsh discrimination, black women served with distinction.
Although African Americans supported their government during WWII, they were not silent about racial practices in America. In fact, some even noted the similarities between the way Jews were treated in Germany and the way blacks were treated in America. The Poet Langston Hughes, for example, expressed this sentiment in his piece “Nazi and Dixie Nordics.”
“The Germans are the victims of a mass psychosis,” says an American sociologist. “It will take drastic measures to control them when peace comes.” These people were talking about Germany. To a Negro, they might just as well have been speaking of white Southerners in Dixie. Our local Nordics have a mass psychosis too, when it comes to race. As the Hitlerites treat the Jews, so they treat the Negroes, in varying degrees of viciousness ranging from the denial of educational opportunities to the denial of employment, from buses that pass Negroes by to jailers who beat and torture Negro prisoners, from the denial of the ballot to the denial of the right to live.
Hughes, like millions of African Americans, was fully conscious of the
gap between the stated ideals of the United States and its practices at
home. African Americans were also aware that the war created an opportunity
to press US leaders for full citizenship.
Double V Campaign
The Pittsburgh Courier, one of the nation’s largest black
newspapers, stepped to the forefront in the struggle for racial equality
by launching its "Double V" campaign. Responding to a January
31, 1942 letter to the editor by James G. Thompson of Wichita, Kansas,
urging for a double V campaign, the paper published two interlocking Vs
with the theme “Democracy: Victory at home, Victory Abroad,”
in its February 7, 1942 edition of the paper. The major objective of the
campaign was to encourage blacks to support the war effort but fight for
civil rights. The Courier’s advocacy of patriotism was
in part to prevent critics of accusing it of pushing its own agenda ahead
of the nation’s objective.
According to the Courier the response to the introduction of
its campaign was “overwhelming.” Its office had been swamped
with telegrams and letters of support proving that its slogan represented
the “true battle cry of Colored Americans” and that they were
determined to protect their nation and the freedoms which they cherished.
It argued that African Americans would wage a "two-pronged attack”
against those who would enslave us “at home and those who abroad
would enslave us. WE HAVE A STAKE IN THIS FIGHT….WE ARE AMERICANS
TOO!”
The Double V campaign became intertwined with popular culture. During
the war, pinup models, usually glamorous movie stars considered sex symbols,
were featured in magazines, postcards and newspapers. In its February
14, 1943 edition, the Courier also began to feature photos of
pretty young women. Labeled the “Double V girl,” the young
women were college educated, were usually artistically talented, and were
in support of the campaign. In addition to using glamorous women to attract
supporters for its campaign, the paper also had photos of people dressed
in the Double V fashion wear such as Double V dresses and Double V hats.
Besides the photos of the Double V Girls and Double V fashion, the Courier
used numerous photos of whites standing alongside African Americans, emphasizing
the point that the struggle for democracy was not a black issue but one
that benefited the nation. The photos of blacks and whites flashing the
Double V were to drive home the point that a unified country was essential
for winning the war. Therefore, it urged the country not only preach democracy
to the world but to practice it at home.
The Double V campaign was eventually adopted by other black newspapers,
including the Los Angles Sentinel, the Washington Tribune,
and the Challenger of Columbus, Ohio. Despite the Courier’s
effort, by 1943, the paper provided less space in promoting the campaign
and by September 1945 the paper stopped using Double V. Although the Courier
could not claim any concrete accomplishments, the Double V campaign helped
provide a voice to Americans who wanted to protest racial discrimination
and contribute to the war effort.
The March on Washington Campaign
Another crucial way that African Americans took advantage of America’s
involvement in WWII to push for civil rights was through mass protest.
When Nazi Germany began invading and occupying countries in Europe, American
industries began contracting with the government to increase production
of ships, tanks, guns and other items for defense. Despite the urgent
need for tens of thousands of skilled workers to help in the production
of these items, war production companies refused to hire blacks. Moreover,
the federal government refused to take steps to end the racial discriminatory
actions of these industries. In fact, the administration publicly announced
that it would continue to segregate black and whites who enlisted in the
armed services.
In response to the blatant discrimination on the part of industry and government, civil rights leader and labor organizer A. Philip Randolph launched the March on Washington Movement (MOWM), which helped organize thousands of people of African origin in the United States to march on the nation’s capital in 1941, demanding that President Franklin Delano Roosevelt issue an executive order banning discrimination in the defense industry. The March on Washington Committee was organized and headed by Randolph and consisted of prominent black leaders such as Walter White of the NAACP and Lester Granger of the Urban League. Although Eleanor Roosevelt met with Randolph and White to convince them to call off the march, Randolph refused, insisting that the president agree to ban discrimination in the defense industry. The threat of thousands of black people coming to Washington DC to protest convinced FDR to hold a meeting with Randolph and other march leaders in June 1941. Although the president attempted to convince Randolph to call off the march, Randolph refused unless an executive order was issued.
Eventually, FDR agreed that his close ally Mayor Fiorello La Guardia
of New York, and others associated with the White House, work out a compromise
with Randolph. The compromise was Executive Order 8802, which banned employment
discrimination in defense industry and government. FDR also created a
temporary Fair Employment Practices Committee to help ensure that defense
manufacturers would not practice racial discrimination. Because of a major
victory in forcing the government to take action against discrimination
for the first time since Reconstruction, Randolph agreed to call off the
march.
Randolph and the march organizers had won a major victory for racial equality
and had laid the groundwork for the civil rights protests of the 1950s
and 1960s.
